Hammaddelerin Elde Edilişleri | merhabaplastik.com

Features of Fossil Fuels

Energy sources consisting of plants and animals that have remained under rocks and soil in the depths of the earth for millions of years and fossilized under heat and pressure are called fossil fuels. The most important feature of fossil fuels is that they are composed of hydrocarbons and organic substances with high carbon content.

Fossil fuels were formed as a result of thermochemical reactions of plant and animal wastes buried under the soil millions of years ago in a certain region. In other words, fossil fuels have a limited amount (reserves) in certain regions.

Oil gained great importance when the steam engine was invented in 1760, water power sources when the steam engine was invented in 1873, internal combustion engines in the 1900s, and internal combustion diesel engines in the 1910s.

Fossil fuels can be classified as coal, oil and natural gas. 70 percent of the world's fossil fuel reserves are coal, 14 percent oil, 14 percent natural gas and 2 percent other fossil resources.

When the general distribution of fossil fuels is examined, liquid and gas fuel reserves are concentrated in certain geographical regions of the world, coal has a regular distribution and its production takes place in more than 50 countries.

Fossil fuels include coal, oil, natural gas, shale, bitumens, tar sands and heavy oils. All contain carbon and

It was formed as a result of geological processes affecting the residues of organic matter produced by photosynthesis, a process that started in Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago).

Fossil Fuels and the Environment

When energy is obtained from fossil fuels as a result of burning, the combustion products (gases such as CO2, NOx and SO2) are dispersed in the atmosphere as flue gas. Flue gases also contain fly ash and hydrocarbons.

Toxic metals such as nickel, cadmium, lead and arsenic are other substances that are thrown into the atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels.

Greenhouse effect :

The greenhouse effect (global warming) is defined as the gradual increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide, with the intensive burning of fossil fuels, and the warming of our world accordingly. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons. It has been stated that the biggest effect of global warming will be the melting of the polar glaciers and the rise of the seas and flooding of many countries.

CO2 plays an active role in the greenhouse effect. Increasing CO2 amount causes the temperature of the earth to increase, which leads to the deterioration of climate balances.

Acid rain :

Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon gases, which are thrown into the air from fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum, are combined with raindrops to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid and carbonic acid in turn. This causes the ecological balance of the world to deteriorate. All fossil fuel residues cause air pollution that affects many of our cities during the winter months.

Nuclear Waste:

When evaluated in terms of environmental effects; The waste generated by nuclear energy in 40-50 years is approximately 200 m3. Since radioactive wastes from nuclear energy are stored in a controlled manner, they do not pose any danger to the environment. In addition, nuclear waste storage technology is developing gradually. The use of nuclear energy will play an effective role in preventing SO2 and NOX emissions as well as reducing CO2 emissions. Our country, which is dependent on foreign sources in terms of energy raw materials, has significant environmental pollution as a result of accidents that may occur during fuel transportation.

Carbon Emission

When it comes to carbon emission, many different definitions come to mind, but carbon emission is actually talking about greenhouse gas emission. Carbon emission simply means the emission of carbon into the atmosphere.

Because greenhouse gas emissions are often calculated as carbon dioxide equivalents, they are often referred to as "carbon emissions or carbon emissions" in any global warming or greenhouse gas impact debate. In addition, carbon molecules are found in the vast majority of greenhouse gases.

Four of the six gases that are considered greenhouse gas in the Kyoto Protocol have carbon molecules (carbon dioxide, methane, hydrofluoride carbons, perfluorocarbons).

The main reasons for the increase in carbon emissions and greenhouse gases in the world are;

➢ Uncontrolled population growth
➢ Industrialization
➢ Increase in global energy demand
➢ Increasing need for urbanization
➢ Reduction of green areas
➢ It is the uncontrolled release of greenhouse gases to the nature.

The human-induced greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere started to increase especially with the industrial revolution that started in the 1850s. As a result, an increase in global energy demand has been observed and a significant increase has been observed in the use of natural resources (especially fossil fuels) to compensate for this increase.

According to the projections of the International Energy Agency, the demand for fossil fuels will increase until 2050 and accordingly, an increase of 130% in carbon emission values will be observed. In addition, according to the projections of the International Energy Agency, global surface temperatures are expected to increase by an average of 0.5 degrees Celsius in the next twenty years.

When we look at the air temperatures, the global air temperature has increased by 0.3-0.6 oC on average in the period from the 19th century to the present, and all the gases that cause greenhouse effect will continue to increase exponentially in the coming years, very important problems such as global warming and climate change will be more for the world in the coming years. it will become a great threat.

Energy is the main determinant of carbon emissions and is one of the most important inputs in the production process. Firms and households that will produce, obtain approximately 87% of the energy they need from fossil fuels. It is known that different types of energy also emit different types and amounts of greenhouse gases. According to the "TUIK 2014 Greenhouse Gas Inventory", it was 132.5 million tons (CO2 equivalent) in 1990, while this figure increased to 340 million tons (CO2 equivalent) in 2014. In other words, the carbon emission of the energy sector increased by 156% between 1990 and 2014.

Cogeneration:

Cogeneration, or Combined Heat and Power, is the combined generation of heat and power. It is not a single technology, but an integrated energy system. Cogeneration first involves generating energy from a specific fuel source such as natural gas, biomass, coal or oil. During the combustion of fuel, cogeneration captures excess heat that would otherwise be wasted.

The heat captured is boiling water, creating steam, heating buildings, etc. Can be used for. For example, in oily sands steam is required to produce bitumen. Using cogeneration, power companies can simultaneously generate steam for generation and electricity in the field. Cogeneration plants generally convert 75-80% of the fuel source into usable energy, while minimizing waste, compared to traditional systems that only hide about 45%. When the heat captured is used to generate electricity, the process is called the combined cycle.

Electricity :

It is the physical flow of electrons called electric current. Electricity is an energy carrier that efficiently transports the energy contained in primary sources to end users and converts it into energy services in return.

Electricity can be generated in three ways :

The most common is electromagnetic conversion, in which electricity is generated by moving an electrical conductor such as a wire in a magnetic field. The most practical example of this method is a generator connected to a turbine (steam or gas). The turbine provides the movement required to move the conductor in the generator. This energy for motion can come from a variety of technologies, such as wind turbines, hydroelectric or nuclear fission, or steam generated from heat generated in coal combustion.
Electricity can also be generated by a chemical reaction such as a battery or fuel cell.
Finally, electricity can be generated through solid state conversion; where electricity is generated using the structure and properties of a solid. The specially formed solid consists of different molecules packed closely together that generate an electric current when excited. An example of technology using solid state conversion is a solar PV cell.

It is important to note that electricity is the same no matter how it is produced. Therefore, electricity produced from an electromagnetic generator is the same as electricity produced from a battery. Once created, electricity is the most versatile form of energy.

The rate at which electricity is produced is called Watts. The amount of energy used for a certain period of time is called kWh and is the measure you will see on your electricity bill.

Electricity is often misunderstood and not appreciated, but modern societies are vitally dependent on it. From electricity, lighting, heating and cooling to powering televisions, computers and cell phones, it is essential to everyday life.

Once the electricity is generated, it should be used immediately. With current technologies, storing large amounts of electricity is not yet economically viable. Therefore, the grid must be managed every minute of every day to balance electricity supply with demand.

Depending on the source of electricity generation, electricity generation can have significant environmental and health impacts. Thermal production sources generate air pollutants that can significantly harm human health. Electricity generation can also contribute significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions. Globally, 40% of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions come from electricity generation. Renewable electricity sources such as solar and wind generate zero direct carbon emissions but only generate electricity on an intermittent or variable basis. Hydrocarbon sources such as coal and natural gas, although carbon-intensive, are the most viable resources used to generate elementary load power to meet consumer demand at any given time.

Coal

It is an energy raw material, consisting mostly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, containing small amounts of sulfur and nitrogen. Coals vary in terms of carbonization process, geological, physical, chemical and thermal properties, moisture, ash, fixed carbon content, sulfur and mineral matter. Among the energy sources, it is the oldest date of use after wood. More IX. It is estimated that it started to be consumed in Great Britain for the purpose of heating houses in the 16th century. Used for the same purpose in China, presumably XII. goes back to the century. The proven and exploitable coal reserves in the world total 892 billion tons. Of the said reserve; 403 billion tons of anthracite and bituminous coal, 287 billion tons of sub-bituminous coal and 201 billion tons of lignite.

Considering the total coal production of the world in 2015, it is calculated that global coal reserves have a lifespan of approximately 134 years. As a result of the serious coal exploration activities carried out in recent years, the lignite reserve of our country has been increased significantly. In addition, studies are underway to classify the said reserve in accordance with international standards and to determine our economically exploitable reserves.

In terms of reserves and production amounts of our country, lignite can be evaluated at medium level on a world scale and low level in hard coal. Approximately 3.2% of the total world lignite / sub-bituminous coal reserves are in our country. However, since most of our lignite has low thermal value, its use in thermal power plants has come to the fore. Approximately 46% of our country's lignite reserves are located in the Afşin-Elbistan basin. The most important hard coal reserves of our country are in Zonguldak and its vicinity. The total hard coal reserves in the Zonguldak Basin are 1.30 billion tons, while the visible reserve is 506 million tons.

The share of coal in the total primary energy consumption of our country, which was 145.3 Million Ton Equivalent Petroleum (MTEP) as of the end of 2017, is 27%. As of the end of 2018, the installed coal-fired power plant power of our country is 18.997 MW, which corresponds to 21.5% of the total installed power. Installed power based on domestic coal is 10,203 MW (11.5%) and installed power based on imported coal is 8,794 MW (10%).

A total of 113.3 TWh of electricity was generated from coal-fired power plants in 2018, with a share of 37.3% in total electricity generation.

life is a black or dark brown flammable rock made mainly of carbon. It was formed millions of years ago when ferns, plants, and trees died and fell into swamps. Swamp conditions prevented the organisms from fully decaying, and after millions of years of intense heat and pressure, coal was formed. one

Coal is divided into four main types, or rankings, based on its carbon and heat content. The general rule of thumb is that the higher the quality of coal, the cleaner it burns and the more versatile its uses are.

Lignite (25% -35% carbon): Also referred to as brown coal, it is the lowest level of coal and is used almost exclusively as fuel for electrical power generation.
Sub-bituminous coal (35% - 45% carbon): Properties range from that of lignite to bituminous coal. It is primarily used as fuel for electrical energy generation. This coal generally has a lower sulfur content than other types, which makes it attractive to use due to its cleaner combustion.
Bituminous coal (45% - 86% carbon): It contains black and sometimes dark brown, often well-defined shiny and dull bands of materials. It is mainly used as a fuel in electrical power generation, in significant quantities it is also used in manufacturing heat and power applications and in coke making for steelmaking.
Anthracite coal (86% -97% carbon): Hard, shiny black coal used in home heating and steelmaking.

Coal is extracted from the earth through underground mining or surface mining. The choice of mining method is largely determined by the geology of the coal bed and its distance from the surface. Underground mining currently accounts for a larger share of the world's coal production than surface mining.

Coal can be burned to heat or generate electricity. The electro city to convert coal to thermal is first ground into a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more quickly. The hot gases and heat energy produced from combustion turn water into steam to drive a turbine and generator.

High quality coal is also a useful raw material; For example, it can be converted to coke for steelmaking. Coal can also be converted into liquid or synthetic gas through advanced chemical processes, making it possible, but costly, a substitute for natural gas or liquid fuels for shipping.

Coal is plentiful and cheap. Assuming that current use and production rates remain unchanged, reserve estimates show that there is enough coal left for more than 200 years. However, there are several problems associated with the use of coal. Mining activities are dangerous. Hundreds of coal miners die or are seriously injured each year.

Oil

It consists of the remains of plants and animals in the sea after decay. After these residues have decayed on the seabed for millions of years, only oily substances remain. Oily substances left under mud and large layers of rock also turn into oil and gas. Oil, which is one of the important energy and industrial raw materials of the world today, is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in different proportions. It forms an average oil, 30% paraffins, 40% naphthenes, 25% aromatic hydrocarbons. The remaining 5% is oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur compounds. Hydrocarbons or hydrocarbons are called natural gas if in gas form, petroleum if liquid, and oil shale in solid form. The best known petroleum product is gasoline. Gasoline is a mixture of paraffins (saturated hydrocarbons), naphthenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons) and certain aromatic hydrocarbons with the formulas C6H6, C7H8, C8H10, C9H12, C10H14, C11H16, C12H18. The evaporation temperature of engine gasoline is between 40 ° C and 150 ° C.

The industry branch called Pet-kim or petrochemistry, which deals with separating oil into derivatives, obtains many by-products from oil. The number of these items is expressed in thousands. However, the most important ones are liquefied fuels such as gasoline, diesel (diesel), kerosene, various machine-motor oils, synthetic fibers, jet fuel, methane, butane and propane.

The proven world oil reserves in 2017 were determined as 1,696.6 billion barrels. 807.7 billion barrels of oil reserves (47.6%) are in Middle Eastern countries, 330.1 billion barrels (19.5%) in South and Central American countries, 226.1 billion barrels in North American countries (13.3%). In 2017, world oil production reached 97.4 million barrels / day. Having a strategic position among primary energy sources, crude oil met 33.7% of the world's energy demand as of 2017.

Oil

Natural Gas

Natural gas

Hydrocarbon-based natural gas is found underground in large volumes in gaseous form, either compressed in the cavities of porous rocks or above oil deposits. Its composition is the same as that of oil. It is a colorless, odorless and lighter gas. It is scented for security purposes during use. Methane (CH4) constitutes the majority of the composition of natural gas, as well as homologous paraffins in natural gas,

It is found in inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and nitrogen (N2). The composition of natural gas varies depending on where it is extracted. Generally, the CH4 ratio in natural gas varies between 56% and 99%, the C2H6 ratio varies between 0.7% and 20%, and the CO2 ratio varies between 0% and 10%.

It is usually found with petroleum. It is a kind of petroleum, most of which is in the form of gas. However, it is composed of lighter and volatile substances (such as methane, butane, propane) compared to the substances that make up petroleum. In addition to its use as kitchen gas, it plays a major role in meeting the energy needs of the industry. Electricity is produced in cycle power plants, its derivatives are widely used as fuel, and it feeds industrial facilities.

The arrival of natural gas to its present state began in 1816 when the street lamps of Baltimore, USA, were illuminated by natural gas.

Natural gas is the cleanest energy source among fossil fuels.

79.1 trillion cubic meters (40.9%) of natural gas reserves in Middle Eastern countries, 62.2 trillion cubic meters (32.1%) in European and Eurasian countries, 33.1 trillion cubic meters (17.1%) in African / Asian Pacific countries are available.

Natural gas is mainly methane (CH4) containing smaller amounts of other hydrocarbons. It was formed millions of years ago when dead marine organisms sank to the bottom of the ocean and buried under deposits of sedimentary rock. Exposed to intense heat and pressure, these organisms underwent a transformation from which they were converted to gas over millions of years.

Natural gas is found in underground rocks called reservoirs. Rocks have small cavities (called pores) in them that allow water, natural gas, and / or oil to retain. Natural gas is held underground by impermeable rock (called caprock) and stays there until it is extracted.

Conventional natural gas can be extracted from boreholes. Unconventional natural gas forms such as shale gas, tight gas, sulphurous gas, coal bed methane and gas hydrates have special extraction techniques. Natural gas can also be found in reservoirs alongside oil and is mined alongside oil; this is called associated gas. In the past, this gas was often flamed or burned as a waste product, but today it is captured and used in most places.

There are two general types of natural gas that are defined by their methane content and reflect differences in their formation processes:

Biogenic gas (± 95% methane) or "dry" gas generated by bacterial rot at shallow depth.
Thermogenic gas (<95% methane), or "wet" gas, which is a lower quality gas that occurs at higher temperatures. Wet gas contains compounds such as ethane and butane in addition to methane. These natural gas liquids (NGLs for short) can be sold separately for a variety of uses, such as refrigerators, and to produce petrochemical products such as plastics. (House of Commons, 2011).

Natural gas is sent through small pipelines, called collecting lines, to processing plants that separate various hydrocarbons and liquids from pure natural gas, and it produces dry natural gas known as 'pipeline quality' before it is transported. Processing includes four main processes to remove various impurities:

Oil and Condensation Removal
Water Removal
Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

The gas is then transported through pipelines called feeders to 4 distribution centers or stored. In some cases, the gas is further liquefied in large tankers to be transported between oceans, this is called Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).

Natural gas is mostly used to generate domestic or industrial heating and electricity. It can also be compressed and used to fuel vehicles (Compressed Natural Gas or CNG) and as a feedstock for fertilizer, hydrogen fuel cells and other chemical processes.

Natural gas development (especially in the United States) has increased as a result of technological advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. When natural gas is burned, there is less greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants compared to other fossil fuels. In fact, when used to generate electricity, natural gas emits about half of coal's carbon emissions.

Despite fewer emissions, natural gas is still a source of greenhouse gases and, like all fossil fuels, it is a non-renewable resource. Additionally, methane is a potent greenhouse gas that is almost thirty-four times the impact of CO2. During drilling, natural gas can escape into the atmosphere and contribute to climate change. Natural gas leaks are also dangerous to nearby communities as they are colorless, odorless, highly toxic and highly explosive. The drilling process itself can also have environmental impacts, mostly related to land degradation and waste removal.

Natural Gas Components:

For the formation of conventional natural gas, four basic components are required:

Source - This refers to dead plants and animals that break down and become natural gas.
Migration - After the dead plants and animals break apart, the newly formed natural gas will move up through holes in the rock covering the source.
Trap - Natural gas will continue to move up through the pores of the rocks until it hits a rock that has no or interconnected pores. This rock is called a trap.
Reservoir - The rock just below the trap that holds all natural gas is called a reservoir. This is where natural gas is extracted.

Conventional natural gas production has four main stages:

Exploration: Geological exploration is a set of technologies used by geologists and geophysicists to predict the location and extent of underground oil reservoirs.
Drilling: After a reservoir is placed with enough precision, a drilling rig is used to drill a hole into the oil reservoir from the surface. Then the oil is allowed to be brought to the surface by placing the pipes. Some will be produced using the natural pressure of the chamber in the oil chamber.
Pumping: As the oil is produced, the pressure of the well will gradually decrease. At this point, a pump will be connected to allow the remaining oil to be removed.
Abandonment: After all economically viable oil is removed from the well, the well is filled with cement to prevent hydrocarbons from escaping, and a special cover is placed on it to protect the area.

Alternative Energy

Refers to energy sources other than fossil fuels. This includes all renewable sources and nuclear energy.

Nuclear is not classified as a renewable energy source.

It may seem trivial to distinguish between renewable and alternative energy, but the terms are used so often that it is important to understand the difference.

In general, alternative energy sources are viewed positively, as they do not directly emit greenhouse gases in their production, but of course all types of energy have their own costs, benefits and compromises.

Energy; It can be defined as the capacity to do work. It is subject to the law of conservation of energy from the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. However, energy can change forms and flow from one place to another.

Energy is found in nature in many forms, including:

Kinetic Energy, which is energy associated with mass in motion
Potential Energy, which is energy associated with position in a force field such as gravity, electric, or magnetic field
Chemical Energy, which is energy that can be released through chemical reactions and stored in certain materials.
Thermal / Heat Energy, which is the energy associated with random molecular movements in an environment; often associated with temperature
Radiant Energy, which is energy carried by light and other electromagnetic radiation

This energy system can be explained as a chain that starts with Primary Energy and ends with Beneficial Energy. Resources are extracted and processed to give us Primary Energy. This is a raw form of energy, an example is natural gas. Primary energy then undergoes transformation and distribution to become the final energy. Final Energy is a form of usable energy such as electricity or transport fuel. End-use technologies take the final energy and transform it into the final form of energy - Useful Energy. Useful energy refers to the energy associated with the energy services consumers receive.

Understanding and developing energy is crucial to social progress. There is a direct relationship between the socio-economic development of a region and its energy consumption. Our ability to harness energy enables a society to use technology to replace human labor. Like its integral role in the energy, entertainment and leisure industries, it also helps in improving the quality of life. For those who have access to energy, it's hard to imagine a life without it.

Although energy is common in all areas of modern society, there are many negative impacts on human health and the environment associated with its production and use.

Nuclear Energy

It is a type of energy obtained from the nucleus of the atom. It is related to the formula E = mc² belonging to Albert Einstein, which expresses the transformation of mass into energy. However, the mass-energy equation does not explain how the reaction occurs, rather nuclear forces do it. Nuclear reactors are used to extract nuclear energy forcibly and convert it into other types of energy. The energy generated by the breakdown of radioactive elements such as uranium, plutonium and thorium by special methods is used in electricity generation. In order to minimize the radioactive wastes generated in power plants in this way, special precautions are taken, such as placing them in special chambers and burying them deep into the ground. They are processed in nuclear power plants (atomic reactors) and consumed in the construction of nuclear fuels. They are also used in electrical energy generation. Uranium, plutonium and thorium are metals of strategic and inorganic origin. Spacecraft and giant nuclear submarine warships and intercontinental missiles are operated on fuel from these mines. In addition, they are of great importance in terms of obtaining electrical energy.

Nuclear power plants, with their security systems, naturally have an effect of only 1% of the radiation in our environment. For this reason, settlement, agriculture, fishing and tourism can be done in addition to nuclear power plants. There are nuclear power plants next to the world's most important tourism and settlement centers such as Paris, London and New York.

The nuclear power plants established today with the experiences, good examples and developing technology over a period of approximately 70 years are referred to as 3 (+) generations. Cooling for 72 hours without outside human intervention, protection against aircraft crashes, passive security systems, digital control rooms, compact equipment and system designs, etc. Many important developments have enabled nuclear power plants to have a safer design.

As of July 2018, 453 nuclear reactors are in operation in 31 countries and 57 nuclear reactors are under construction in 17 countries. The electricity generated in Nuclear Power Plants corresponds to 11% of the world electricity supply. On a country basis, France meets approximately 72% of its electricity demand, Ukraine 55%, Belgium 50%, Sweden 40%, South Korea 27%, the European Union 30% and the USA 20% from nuclear energy. .

Of the nuclear reactors under construction, 15 are in China, 7 in India and 6 in Russia. Besides the United States 2, 4 of the United Arab Emirates, South Korea 4, 1 nuclear reactor is under construction in France and Turkey.

Akkuyu NPP:

Our country half a century of nuclear power plants to establish targets, "the Republic of Turkey and the Government of the Russian Federation between the Akkuyu Site Agreement on Cooperation on and Operation Establishment of a Nuclear Power Plant" has been started to happen with the signing on 12 May 2010. The Agreement was approved by the General Assembly of the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 15 July 2010 and was published in the Official Gazette No. 27721 dated October 6, 2010. During the past period, the EIA positive decision from the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (1 December 2014) and a pre-license for electricity generation for 36 months was obtained from EMRA. The Field Parameters Report prepared by Akkuyu Nuclear Inc. was approved by TAEK on February 9, 2017. On March 3, 2017, Akkuyu Nuclear Inc. made an application for a Construction License with the Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (ÖGAR), and after the examination and evaluations made by TAEK, the "Limited Work Permit" was approved on October 19, 2017. With the Limited Work Permit, the construction of non-nuclear safety-related structures in the Akkuyu field, in which the underground concrete of the first unit was laid, started. The Construction License was approved by TAEK on April 2, 2018, thus the foundation of the first unit of the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant was laid with a ceremony. This unit is planned to be commissioned in 2023.

Increasing the demand for electricity and nuclear energy production in Turkey is becoming a necessity. If Akkuyu NGS was built 10 years ago, Turkey would have to make savings on gas purchases up to $ 14 billion.

According to the calculations of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, if Akkuyu NGS was put into service today, it would alone meet the electricity of a large city with a population of 15 million like Istanbul.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Energy Raw Materials:

Uranium: Today, uranium and thorium are included in the scope of nuclear energy raw materials. However, since thorium-based nuclear power plants have not yet come into operation on an economic scale, thorium is still a nuclear fuel raw material waiting for its turn.

Nuclear energy raw materials are mainly used as fuel to obtain electrical energy in the nuclear reactor. Therefore, the consumption is determined by the installed nuclear energy capacities.

Today, uranium and thorium are included in the scope of nuclear energy raw materials. Uranium is never found free in nature. It combines with various elements to form uranium minerals. There are hundreds of uranium minerals in the earth's crust; however, the vast majority of them do not contain economically uranium. Economical bed formers are autunite, pitchblende (uraninite), coffinite and torbernite.

Uranium ore goes through many stages from the way it is found in nature until it is turned into fuel to be used in a nuclear reactor.

Ore Search
Ore Deposit Operation, Ore Extraction
Yellow Cake Production
Yellow Paste Treatment (ADU production)
Calcination and Reduction to UO2
Conversion of UO2 to UF4
Making UF6 from UF4.

Uranium is traded in international markets as a nuclear energy raw material, in the form of yellow cake. As a product standard, yellow paste is required to contain at least 60%U, and the sum of other elements in a purified uranium compound (such as UO2, UF6) should not be more than 300 ppm for 1 gram of uranium.

Since uranium cannot be bought and sold as easily as other minerals, its transportation depends on very strict rules, some agreements between countries and international control, countries that build or plan to establish nuclear power plants aim to find and evaluate their own uranium resources.

In international markets, yellow paste is required to contain at least 60%U and the sum of other elements in a purified uranium compound should not be more than 300ppm per 1g of uranium.

Thorium: Uranium and plutonium atoms Nuclear power, which is obtained as a result of the disintegration of its nuclei, makes important contributions to the supply of controllable energy for human beings in various countries today. Like uranium, thorium is a nuclear fuel raw material.

Thorium, like uranium, is not found in free form in nature, but is found in around 60 minerals. Of these, only monazite and thorite are used in the production of thorium. These minerals are also often found together with rare earth elements.

Thorium is a nuclear fuel raw material waiting for its turn. The biggest reason for this is the problem of the nuclear fuel cycle. Thorium-232 can be converted to uranium-233 by some processes. Thorium-233 is a fissile material like uranium-235. As a result of this disintegration, a great amount of energy is released. Due to the fuel cycle problem, there are currently no commercial-scale power plants powered by thorium, although prototypes of these power plants have been trialled for a long time in the UK, Germany and the USA.

Due to the lack of consumption on a commercial scale, the consumption of thorium as an energy raw material is almost non-existent. Apart from its use as an energy raw material, there is still no bed operated solely for thorium, since the amount of thorium consumed in different areas of use is not high and the world production, which is around 700 tons of ThO2 per year, is obtained entirely from monazite as a by-product.

Solar Energy

Solar energy (solar system) is the most abundant renewable energy source in the world. Solar energy systems refer to technologies that convert the sun's heat or light to another form for energy use

There are two categories of technologies that take advantage of solar energy: Solar Photovoltaics and Solar Thermal.

Solar Photovoltaic (or PV) is a technology that converts sunlight into direct current electricity using semiconductors. The tr e rgy generation process where the sun is a renewable resource and does not emit any greenhouse gases. However, the cost of solar energy relative to other fuel sources is a barrier to its adoption. In addition, sunlight varies depending on geographic location, season, and time of day, all of which create limitations in its use.

Solar Thermal: Solar heat generates energy indirectly by using the energy emitted from the sun to heat the liquid to generate heat or electricity. To generate electricity, steam generated from heating the fluid is used to power generators. This is different from photovoltaic solar panels that convert solar radiation directly into electricity.

There are two main types of solar energy systems for energy generation: active and passive. Active systems require moving parts such as fans or pumps to circulate heat-carrying fluids. Passive systems do not have mechanical components and rely solely on design features to capture heat (eg greenhouses). Technologies are also grouped by temperature (low, medium and high)

Low temperature (<100 ° C) applications typically use solar thermal energy for hot water or space heating (Boyle, 2004). Active systems usually consist of a ceiling mounted flat plate collector through which the liquid circulates. The collector absorbs the heat from the sun and the liquid moves it to the desired target, for example a swimming pool or home heating system. Passive heating systems include smart building design practices that reduce the need for heating or cooling systems by better capturing or reflecting solar energy.
Medium temperature (100-250 ° C) applications are not common. An example would be a solar oven that uses a specially shaped reflector to focus the sun's rays on a central cooking pot. Similar systems can be used for industrial processes but are not widely used.
High temperature (> 250 ° C) solar systems use groups of mirrors to concentrate solar energy in a central collector. These concentrated solar power (CSP) systems can reach temperatures high enough to generate steam, which then spins a turbine, driving a generator to generate electricity.

Biomass Energy

Refers to organic material used for energy production. This energy generation process is called Bioenergy. Biomass is found primarily in the form of living or recently living plants and biological waste from industrial and domestic use. Due to the breadth of the term, the physical composition of biomass is inconsistent, but it often includes carbon, water, and organic volatiles.

For energy production from biomass, the term raw material is used to indicate what type of organic material will be used to produce a form of energy. The feedstock must then be converted into a usable form of energy through one of several processes.

Raw Material + Process -> Usable Energy Form

Some common biomass conversion processes include:

Combustion: The process of burning combustible materials in the presence of air or oxygen to release heat. It is the simplest method by which biomass can be used for energy. In its primitive form, combustion is used for space heating (i.e. fire for temperature), but can also be used to heat steam for electricity generation.
Gasification: Conversion of biomass into a flammable gas mixture called Producer Gas (CO + H 2 + CH 4) or Syngas. The gasification process uses heat, pressure, and partial combustion to generate syngas, which can then be used instead of natural gas
Pyrolysis: It occurs from thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen. It is the precursor to gasification and takes place as part of both gasification and combustion. Pyrolysis products include gas, liquid and sold coal, with proportions of each depending on the parameters of the process.
Anaerobic digestion (or biological digestion): the process by which bacteria break down organic material in the absence of air to form biogas containing methane and a solid residue. Methane can then be captured to produce energy. Similarly, solid residue can be burned to generate energy.
Fermentation: involves the conversion of a plant's glucose (or carbohydrate) into an alcohol or acid. Sugar-fed yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material to produce ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to achieve a higher alcohol concentration to achieve the required purity for use as automotive fuel. The solid residue from the fermentation process can be used as cattle feed, and in the case of sugar cane, it can be used as a fuel for boilers or for subsequent gasification.

Some raw materials are more suitable for certain biomass conversion processes than others. The determination of which raw materials and processes to use is largely determined by the availability of resources and the desired final energy form.

Before the industrial revolution, biomass was the primary source of energy. Biomass now accounts for only a small percentage of total world energy use. However, for about 2.5 billion people, it remains the primary source of energy for cooking and heating. The use of biomass is highly contextual for the region where it is used - availability of resources, availability of technology, and economic viability are the drivers of biomass use.

Some jurisdictions - particularly those with sustainable forestry initiatives - declared biomass to be a "carbon neutral" energy source. This is based on the logic that carbon emissions from the combustion of biomass will be recaptured in the future by plants grown to feed biomass reactors, thus creating a carbon cycle for the plant.

Environmental benefits and costs are highly contextual depending on the technology and raw materials used. While some biomass processes such as waste-to-energy are touted for lower CO2 emissions, some processes such as combustion, carbon dioxide and particulate matter, which is a major concern for human health.

The world's most energy-poor people and regions still rely on biomass for most of their energy needs. Lack of proper ventilation mechanisms for the incineration of biomass is a major health concern and contributes to short lifetimes in most of the developing world.

Concerns about biomass go beyond human health. Depending on the biomass source used, deforestation, degradation of cultivated areas (due to shifting of agricultural residues) and land use change may be biomass-related issues.

Biomass Energy

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy

Place refers to the production of energy using the internal heat of the shell . This heat comes from the constant loss of heat from the radioactive decay of minerals and the original formation of the earth.

with geothermal power generation drilling Well into the earth's crust at an approximate depth of 3-10 km. Heat is extracted by various methods, but in most cases it is drawn from the Earth using water and steam. Hot water around the world can be extracted to heat homes and buildings. This is done either by circulating hot water directly through the buildings or by pumping it through a heat exchanger that transfers the heat to the building. geothermal heat, can also be used to generate electricity in a geothermal power plant . electricity, geothermal heat when it produces steam that turns turbines in a generator is produced.

Geothermal technology can only be used in places with certain geological conditions. Therefore, the main zones of geothermal development are in the most volcanically and tectonically active areas of the world. For example, heat and power plants can be found in Iceland, Indonesia, New Zealand, Hawaii, California and Ecuador. In these regions, it can form a significant part of the energy and heating sectors – for example, over 90% of space heating and more than 27% of electricity in Iceland is from geothermal energy.

If properly managed, geothermal renewable and is a sustainable form of energy because it generates electricity using the Earth's natural heat. When developed irresponsibly, ground temperatures below the surface can drop. Geothermal is an environmentally friendly technology because it produces little or no greenhouse gas emissions.

Although geothermal energy is currently a small part of the world's energy supply mix, it has great potential for future development as it is a reliable source of power generation that can serve baseload electricity needs.

One concern with geothermal energy is groundwater use. This process of removing water can unintentionally release carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. Reducing the release of these emissions is a major challenge when developing this technology.

Finally, the costs of geothermal energy are largely upfront. Simply put, it is expensive to perform seismic sensing, test well drilling, verification tests and other necessary preliminary investigations to ensure that a geothermal plant can meet the desired production specifications.

Geothermal energy use can be classified into three types:

• Direct use applications:

It is probably the most widely used set of apps. It is the direct use of heated groundwater without the need for any special equipment. All direct-use applications use geothermal sources at minimum temperatures, which are between about 50 and 150 °C (122 and 302 °F). This minimum temperature geothermal water and steam can be used to heat single homes as well as entire neighborhoods where different homes are heated from a central supply source.

In addition, many swimming pools, spas, greenhouses and aquaculture pools around the world are heated with geothermal resources.

Many similar applications of geothermal energy include cooking, industrial applications (such as fruit, vegetables and wood), pasteurization of milk, and snowmelt on a large scale.

• Geothermal heat pumps:

This system consists of a series of pipes (heat exchanger) buried in the ground and a pump. It works on the principle of heat energy exchange between the surface and the air through the liquid circulating through the pipes. The fluid used is usually water or a water-antifreeze mixture. In summer, the heat from the hot air is transferred to the heat exchanger and the fluid. Heat is transferred by dissipating heat to pipes and rocks, soil and groundwater. In colder months, the pump is reversed. In warm and moist soil, heat energy increases the liquid temperature. This energy is then transmitted to the heat pump, which heats the air inside the house.

Geothermal heat pump systems use 25% to 50% less energy than conventional heating and cooling systems and can be adapted to different situations with their versatile structures.

• Electricity generation: Geothermal energy can be used to generate electricity based on temperature and fluid (steam) flow. Geothermal power plants, despite various design differences, work as a kind of steam engines while generating electricity. Basic principle; blowing the water vapor into the tribune with pressure. Same time, water to be condensed and repeatedly heated for later use, it moves in a cycle, which is why geothermal energy is seen as a form of renewable energy.

A combination of steam ejected directly from underground (or pumped up) and hot water (wet steam) is used in the power plant. The combined steam temperature above 175 °C (347 °F) paves the way for more economical electricity production.

Hot fluid from a geothermal source may have been probed from as deep as 10 km.

placed on hot liquid soil for later use. Insulated pipelines (with less than 2–5 °C (3.6–9 °F) temperature loss) are routed to the power plant for electricity generation.

Geothermal energy is now assumed to be one of the most valuable energy sources. Not only is it a renewable form of energy, it is available in most areas and in many ways even surpasses some traditional sources.

Geothermal energy has numerous benefits, especially in relation to traditional energy sources, the most important of which is that geothermal energy is a valuable resource for the environment. Geothermal energy is primarily extracted without using fossil fuels, and geothermal fields produce almost no emissions. Also, geothermal energy is extremely beneficial as you can save up to 80 percent on conventional power consumption. Geothermal energy is obtained from the soil and greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia are released. The amount of emitted gas is quite low compared to fossil fuels.

Compared to renewable energy such as solar, wind or biomass, geothermal energy is an exceptionally stable source of energy, so it is not dependent on wind or solar and can be used throughout the year. If we look at the availability variable, which shows how stable the different energy sources are, geothermal energy ranks well above other types.

However, geothermal energy also has disadvantages as there are always two sides of the coin.

Although it is considered as sustainable and renewable energy, sustainability may end as some places may get cold from time to time. Geothermal energy is found in areas with high thermal gradients, such as in areas of gradient plate length (for example, along the Pacific Ring of Fire) or areas marked by thin crust (hot spots), such as Yellowstone National Park and the Hawaiian Islands. Geothermal basins associated with these areas should have a heat source, optimum water supply, a basin with optimum permeability, or a structure that allows fluids to rise near the surface.

The geothermal system has high investment costs. The return period of investment costs is long. For this reason, it is not in the list of preferences of private business investors and companies that enter public tenders. For this reason, geothermal power plants show themselves more in administrations with a social public understanding.

Wind Power

Wind Energy captures the natural wind around us and converts the movement of air into mechanical energy. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure. Wind speeds vary according to geography, topography and season. As a result, there are some places that are better suited for wind power generation than others. Wind speeds are generally higher near shore and offshore, as there are fewer objects to slow them down, such as vegetation, mountains, and buildings. The mechanism used to convert the movement of air into electricity is called a turbine. A turbine is a large structure with several spinning blades. These blades are connected to an electromagnetic generator that generates electricity when wind causes the blades to rotate.

Traditionally, this energy was used to grind grain and pump water, but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. Wind power is becoming an increasingly important part of the global electricity supply mix.

The biggest advantage of wind is that it is a clean and renewable form of energy. Electricity generation does not contain direct carbon emissions or air pollutants and does not consume water. Wind also has relatively low operating and maintenance costs after initial construction.

However, wind power also faces a variety of challenges. Wind speeds can vary throughout the day and year, and can cause outage problems in power grids.

The price tag for wind power is traditionally higher than traditional sources of electricity generation, but the wind cost curve has dropped significantly in recent years.

Water Energy

About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by water. It is the work of converting the kinetic energy of moving water into electricity. Electricity from hydroelectric power plants, most widely used renewable energy, accounting for about 16% of global electricity production type.

There are two water energy technologies; Hydroelectric and Tidal Power.

Hydropower:

It is electrical energy obtained from falling (potential energy) or flowing water (kinetic energy). The movement of the water turns the blades of a tribune connected to a generator. Here mechanical energy is converted into electricity.

To put it briefly, a large amount of water is retained behind the dam where the station is built. Controlled amounts of water are allowed to flow from near the top of this dam into concrete tunnels that cause the water to pass through a tribune (essentially a set of fan blades), which raises the kinetic energy of the flowing water and provides strong rotational motion in the stands.

The turbine is connected via a gear mechanism to an electrical generator made to rotate at a controlled speed. This generator converts the rotational kinetic energy of the turbine into electrical energy (alternating current to be precise). A transformer to increase the voltage to a very high value so that the minimum energy is converted into heat while the electrical energy is transmitted to the consumers.

There are two main hydropower technologies

Dam Power Plants: It has the process of increasing the pressure of the water by establishing lakes on the rivers cut by the dam, and maximizing the kinetic energy with the created elevation difference and generating electricity with the highest rotational force to be applied to the tribunes.
River Power Plants: It is applied at points with high flow. However, flow alone is not enough. The flow rate should also be high. In order for the current to reach a high value, the river beds are enclosed in a large pipe in most applications and the river is allowed to pass through this pipe for a while. The kinetic energy of the water is slightly increased by decreasing the pipe diameter. and the water is passed through the tribune and then discharged through the pipe, allowing the river to return to its natural course. However, this point is usually close to the final points where the river meets the sea or ocean. Because In a long distance, the river is removed from its natural environment, which negatively affects the vitality in nature. This is why this electricity generation technique applied as HES in Turkey has caused many social protests. is why.

Tidal power :

It converts the natural rise and fall of the tides into electricity. Tidal energy uses mechanical energy to generate electricity using a variety of specialized technologies such as tidal fences, dams and turbines. Additionally, wave power can be used to capture energy from waves on the ocean surface using a special buoy or other floating device.

Energy from water is considered a renewable energy as it uses the Earth's water cycle and gravitational force to generate electricity. It also does not emit greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutants. However, depending on the water energy technology, adverse environmental land use effects can be an issue.

Water is also used extensively in the energy production process. The majority of the water used in the energy sector is for cooling power plants because water is the most effective medium for controlling waste heat. Water is also a fossil fuel extraction and processing and biofuel It is used to produce steam for irrigation of crops. About 15 percent of the world's water withdrawal is for energy production, the second is agriculture. Given its scarcity and its crucial role in energy production, water use and conservation is a challenge faced by many stakeholders in the energy industry.

Hydro Energy